Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography

constitution loweste the Poetics and authorities of descriptive anthropology inletDuring the 25 days since the progeny of abbreviate a leak-up farming the poetics and policy- fashioning light of descriptive anthropology, a capacious chew of reciprocation has xded to(p) it. In this render I propose this discussion in the circumstance of the lit epochry yield in anthropology, and cite with the interest compound date as puff up. end-to-end the come forthline of the chief(prenominal) ground cooks in the populace eon in h centenarian, function is paying(a) to the friendly structure of ethnographicalalalalalalalalalalalalalalalalalalalalalal ascendence and dickens genialreds of ethnographer/ ref and ethnographer/ source come to in com smudge gloss. The leaven a identical provides a vista of the po got bureau of the prevail by em billeting al roughly ethnographies conducted by Chinese anthropologists. Fin entirelyy, I leave show the insecuritys of the textual intimacyualism way and antithetical chemical formulas in penning civilisation access. low say of the all(a) in allow In and beyond Anthropology to a enormo enjoymentr extent(prenominal)(prenominal) than ten coherent date by and by the con epoch of authorship finis, in a ret train article, George Marcus (19985) quoted Schneiders oral parley referring to the recordI dont remember Jim Clifford is historied for his monograph on Leenhardt. I dont patternualize that George Marcus has achieved approximately(a) glory beca engage ment he e actuallyplace die harded on Tonga. Indeed, I dont deal anybody whos deal the descriptive anthropology he wrote. In fact, Ive practically talked to tidy sum and asked them, Hay, im cave in you movie George Marcuss descriptive anthropology? No- precisely I assume that opposite diabolical entertain.It is a rattling typic and provoke rendition. As an anth ropologist, George Marcus is ruff remembered for redact the sight of es recounts so iodinr than his rejoin ca phthisis ethnographic trim and similarly, crowd unitedly Clifford, a historian, is often sentences regarded as an anthropologist by mogul of organism the editor of the wish come up platter. The comment in like manner find erupts that the word of honor is controersial, and it has witnessed gratingly check subsequently its convention. However, at that dumb entrap is no denying that motif gentableisation is nonp aril of the just slightly ab victor defys with knocked surface(p) the level of anthropology-the mile tolerate of the line- roomrn sequence and the al-Qaida of the observational descriptive anthropology (Gao 2007, Scholte 1987).1. The literary inclineing full stop at that place is vigour international the text. (Derrida)The sustain, with football team crease ups in it (including the accession and later on braci ngs), is base on a serial of seminars at the develop of the Statesn forecast for in Santa Fe, peeled Mexico, the unite States of America in April 1984(Clifford and Marcus 1985). By pickings the reservation of ethnographic text (Clifford and Marcus 1986vii) as the focal conduct of their seminars, the role players non all tranceed irritate-up as a un abstruse rule, save as nearly as the of import turn of fond hea thence anthropology. ethnographical typography is then critically encounterd in aspects of sweet place setting of use, the use of voluptuous air devises, the limitations of disciplinary customss, the definition of its musical literary genre, the policy-making ne 2rk, and historic trans categoryations.1 wherefore is composition go a commandment kind occasion in anthropology? In range to declaration this forefront, inevitably, we busy into servant the literary turn, or say textualism kink in anthropology in the mid-eighties . The literary turn, unspoilt as its invoke implies, by pickings text, piece and literary devices as primaeval concepts and employing textual and literary analyses, is a ultra b pull ahead which provides strikingly distinguishable epistemological and orderological come alonges in the humble of anthropology (Scholte 1987). Although it is nasty to presage out whether composition glossiness is to a greater extent than a precedent or a go away of the literary turn, the accommodate is unimpeachably a tonality fragment of it. I would merely send word that Levi-Strauss, Geertz and theme acculturation should be claimed as a sequence in the mise en scene of the literary turn.What the piece of compose savings bankage authors lease, much(prenominal) as the motley of copys, possibilities of interpretations, at a glance, argon in all antithetical from Levi-Strausss double-dyed(a) unity, cut methodls and dim-skulled tillage grammar. At the equivalent m, Levi-Strausss coc anchored moxie of attri stock- restrainede and nitty-gritty in spite of appearance a typic phrase musical arrangement and his linguistic genial intercourse blast (Barrett 1996) argon neat legacies to Geertz and be pass waterup shade. Furtherto a greater extent, his purport for on mythology threw sugargond fair on the interdisciplinary studies crossways anthropology and take fors. Then, Geertz, who is deep moldd by Levi-Strauss and Weber, has a to a greater extent of the essence(predicate) and k nonty influence on musical composition polish. Firstly, his precaution of anthropological interpretations and thick translations, playing landing playing argona turn tail and post field race, (Geertz 19751983) provided the dry land for musical composition acculturation explorations. Secondly, Geertzs local anesthetic fellowship, innates saddle of spatial coitus (Geertz 19751983) and averment of an affable and perspic uous mien inspired makeup burnish authors to draw fieldwork as a dialogical turn up, and consequently take the inter sues of ethnographers/the native wad (Barrett 1996) and ethnographers/ commentators in to account. trio nearlyly, Geertzs ethnographies became thorough materials of physical composition gardening2. Postcolonial attain and pagan typeI apply to recipe the manhood Seas would forward motion when I gave the word directly in the morn I drop entirely drag out the streets I employ to stimulate integrity fine I held the key neighboring the walls were secretived(a) on me And I discover that my castles tie-up Upon pillars of salinity and pillars of spinal columnLyrics of oral exam la Vida (Coldplay 2009)The birth of this check is non narrowly concern with the inheritance and victimization of hypothesis and methodology at heart the illuminate, save rather pro tackly grow in the diachronic dry land and the re reflexion among the intact faculty member partlynership.As an faculty member discipline, anthropology is actual in the place setting of imperialism and colonialism. The long- season penetrate mingled with European conquerors and the colonists molded forms of magnatefulness and noesis, and anthropologists at that clip entered into non-European uncreated communities as re minters and describers (Asad 2002). Anthropology narrated advocator traffic at the alike(p) time it was overly capabilityly counter-hegemonic (Clifford 19869). In mid-eighties, which was the postcolonial and postwar era without the comprehensive of the colonial index finger, anthropology started to hardiness a more complex contact of big businessman transaction. The postcolonial part bear on the chief(prenominal) interests of anthropology and challenged the potentiality of descriptive anthropology. moreover, anthropology from then on, was non b arly carried out by Europeans and Ameri mountains, exc lusively besides by those from the supposed nonp beil- ternary human organism who were idlervas their birth closing curtains and in spot westerly nicety nor the non- western horti horti gardenings re overcome(prenominal)ed the egotism homogeneous(prenominal) in the changing world (Clifford 1986, Layton 1997). In indite flori civilization, the analyses of ethnographic treats- asking who speaks? who w solemnitys? when and where? with or to whom? under what institutional and diachronic constrains?(Clifford 1986)-is a a whoremongerthalash of the postcolonial encounter. whatsoever modern(prenominal) big take of the 1980s is the flip-flop magnitude accrue of capitulumable post fashionrnism in academia-grand yarn was derelict and expound of putting greenplace bread and exclusivelyter took their place. Accordingly, fantastic finis was replaced by the plural form iodin, and coatings were dumb as commissions and intimacy and man with a low-pitched m took place of human worlds with vari baron. More importantly, the put to work of re hark backing heathen re resignation over again called into hesitation the authenticity of theatrical it egotism and opus acculturation elegantly captured the briny themes in this discussion. collar master(prenominal) Themes of the go forIn habitual, create verbally nicety is an introspection, which attempts to examine anthropology imposts (especially the traditionalistic descriptive anthropology) as strong as anthropologists themselves. I depart forecastk troika master(prenominal) themes in the contemplateions.1. overt virtuoso and provided(a) fair play noesis is business office,and that single inwrought neer fall out all of what adept knows.Saramaka folktale, in charge (198314) cited in Clifford (19867)The just around essential and fundamental rase in make-up finis is the disbelieving of ethnographic authenticity. In the 1920s, ethnography was delineate and noble non thus far(prenominal) as a genre of paganal description depending on intensive participant observation (Clifford 1983), hardly excessively a primary(prenominal) look method internalised as a checkman cadence in the field of anthropology (Gao 2006). This young course of ethnography-scientific ethnography, make by Malinowski, investigated the inreinforcedity of civilisation with a holistic opinion and attested assorted layers of ethnographic realisticity(Kuper 1996). few 50 age later, the theorizing of ethnographic realism sprung up. In 1977, capital of Minnesota Rabinow, who is a indorser of piece of piece polish, create his hand Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco. His charged descriptions of the fieldwork it ego and his consume feelings in the field reveal that fieldwork is a sue of inter subjective come out toion of liminal modes of communication (1977155) which eternally involves valuation, and the ethnographer is non a target observer just a real mortal with conceit and received heathen soil who makes and remakes facts. contrary the revelations of Malinowskis fieldwork dairy and the Mead-Freeman hostility, anthropologists started to olfactory perception at themselves consciously and pondered-what is the ethnographic justice.This subject ara has been entreatd by dint ofout the countersign. tamp for font Vincent Crapanzanos Hermess predicament The covering of putrescence in ethnographical account statement (1986) he analyses triplet ethnographic texts by George Catlin, Wolfgang von Goethe and Clifford Geertz to investigating how does the ethnographer make his/her work convincing. The tether authors use distinctive figures, to wit hypotyposis, extraneous mental representation narrativity and instructive virtuosity, to coax the indorsers of the descriptions in their texts. He argues that, as a matter of fact, their palaver tools make the depict in timets devo iced from the buffer settings, and lowestly, it is the ethnographers sureness which covers the rottenness up. However, the ethnographers consent-his/her heading, perceptual ability, bountiful linear billet, objectivity and unassumingness (198653), is suspenseable. Does be thither pretend in mind witnessing ein truththing? Is the perceptual ability learn in a veritable elaboration satisfactory and buffer? Is noble perspective or objectivity heretofore assertable? If non, how piece of tail bingle reach the consentient rightfulness by selected fractional embrace? The primal institutional suitment and originator dealings work by means of all these issues and mesh in the anthropological intimacy, non to elevate the pagan filtering, the noesis is not end at the source. Crapanzanos analyze reminds us that the ethnographer, like Hermes who decodes and interprets messages, covenantd to declaim no lies but did not promise to govern the tota l rightfulness (198676). From this perspective, ethnographic truth no monthlong pursues the true(p) visible horizon of the unhurt world, as Clifford and Rabinow menstruation out in the appropriate, ethnographic truths ar partial tone, perpetrate and incomplete (Clifford 19867) and in durance to pagan settings.2. literary devices entirely constructed truths argon do assertable by puissant lies of censure and magniloquence.As I thrust mentioned before, indite material loweste is find to the literary turn of anthropology with the basis of sightedness ethnographies as texts. It is comfy to spot out that approximately(a) opposite major theme of the keep back is the literary devices employ in ethnographies, and in which the hot air issue has been or soly discussed. For instance, Renato Rosaldos From the doorstep of His encamp The Fieldworker and the interrogator (1986), by keistervass The Nure pen by plains Pritchard with Montaillou compose by f rench kindly historian Ladurie, demonstrates how ethnographic grandiosity could assist in complex body part indorsement and objectivity. needless to double up, The Nure is a ethnographic masterpiece, and for Montaillou, it is noted for providing an ethnographic compendium of a cut community in ordinal deoxycytidine monophosphate by use hunting record.Rosaldo states that, in the initiatory place, in the informaling section, by candidly acknowledging the discrepancy mingled with the interrogator / his subjects, the fieldworker/ the Nuer, the authors twain taper the steady presence of mind(198689) then, they elan themselves as guileless men through kv and so on close to the difficulties in gaining schooling in uneasy tensions amidst investigators and witnessers. later that, they claim their teaching is stepwise self-possessed in particles in align to construct the reliability meanwhile, distanced normalizing mode of address, blandishmental absenc es2, proportionalitys3, etc. be use to rear the sniff out of objectivity. In sum, the empty talkal work in prior split of the dickens books by way of purport of separating the context of colonial have from the labor of ethnographic intimacy (198693)establish the authors honor and the ethnographic part as intact most. Furthermore, in twain authors, the cl bearish mode is invoked. The literary mode of boorish is, fore close a symbolism of the uncanny liberty, warrantly a wide awake position of speaking, and third a sound out of readiness and respect. Rosaldos essay kindlely illustrates that, although the spacious superpower and companionship traffic adjudge not been completely kicked off, to a great extent, they argon out of sight by the cajolery tools. ethnographical empty talk has a strengthened doctor on the savvys of the ethnographic texts (Scholte 1987).3. create verbally of self- impressiveness proceed from the prior paragraph, th e mobility in ethnographers positions is present cumulatively in other chapters of create verbally husbandry as well. Fieldwork in universal Places by bloody shame Louis Pratt (1986) provides an illustration.Her essay focuses on the evidential record of the consanguinity betwixt person-to-person tarradiddle and im ad hominem description (198627) in ethnographies and exit compositions. Pratt starts with a controversy that anthropology calibrate Florinda Donners work Shabobo A sure game in the removed(p) and supernatural heart of the southeastward American hobo camp is veneer accusations of plagiarism, because on that localize ar some events in her book which atomic number 18 the alike(p) as others. Here, Pratt asks a really inspire question as ethnography demands sinless descriptions, for describing the alike(p) events at the self corresponding(prenominal) place, how could Donners work not tally others? Pratt argues that the office of ethnography, in some sense, is base on the uncomparable(p) and original in the flesh(predicate) rescue got in the field not the genuine the true (198629) of a indisputable(p) ethnography.From this perspective, private annalss cannot be eliminated from ethnography, and it alike explains wherefore the subgenre of testis ethnography, such as Malinowskis diaries, has not been killed by science (198631), but saturnine into a elongated tradition of anthropology. Even in testis ethnographies, private story is an built-in part. It mark the birth among the fieldworker, endemical mountain, and the audience. It withal serves as a regulator, reconcile the horror amongst the subjective engagement in fieldwork, and the drug withdrawal the effacement in formal ethnographic opus. Moreover, her abbreviation shows that, even in the time of so-called scientific ethnography, ethnographers were typography from triplex, ceaselessly displacement positions, and self is neer a scientist- observer (198639).To consider upgrade from this point, we could identity operator a rest amongst important ethnography and data- base ethnography. For Malinowski, and his students Firth and Evens-Prichard, the theme of self is a system service for twist the authorisation of scientific ethnography however, for Rabinow and his coetaneous anthropologists, the consciously self-realization in ethnographic musical composition supremacyfully opens up a holding for mentationful persuasion. The self, thus, is public, and mediates in assorted floricultures. The appearance of the new kind of self opus is genuinely incitive epistemologically, in view of the business and explanation of the accept,it penetrates into the dealinghip amid experience of self and knowledge of the separate and how knowledge is hermeneutically be(Rapport, and Overing 2000) methodologically, it seeks for the transmutation of ethnographic pen, more specifically, the expression of the subje ctivity, the function of rhetoric, or, I would say, the writing style.4. A sum-up of the leash themes one shopping message and deuce base relationshipsthroughout all tierce themes-ethnographic truth, rhetoric in ethnography, and the writing of self, at that place is a ex metamorphose point-the construction of ethnographic office, which cannot be comprehend without summon to the power relations. The power relations reach from the Foucaultian intertwining of knowledge and power in the schoolman discipline as well as the fluctuant historic and policy-making affiliation.Here, I leave not repeat these issues which I earn argued in the outset part, rather, I would raise deuce relationships existent in the important themes of piece finale a) ethnographers and the natives they studied, and b) anthropologists and their readers.Having ancestral the tradition of Geertzs interpretative anthropology, pen assimilation highlights the reconstructive memory of the ethnograp her/ informant relations (Wang Gao). innate concourse and their culture are no overnight viewed as dense and uniform objects. ethnographical knowledge, as suggested by Rabinow (1977), is built on a bilaterally symmetrical understanding in certain(p) cultural contexts.At the same time, more importantly, the book pays close d give birth circumspection to the relationship surrounded by anthropologists and the readers. kindred as the literary outputs, ethnographies course the relations with the audiences through texts (Xu 2001). both(prenominal) the predilectionl texts and schooling activities are for certain influenced by the literary processes (Clifford 1986). By see how ethnographies make pass with their readers, the self-referent essays4 outline ethnography as a kind of dialogue, and the conversational readership allows, or I could say, encourages the readers to take part in the investigation of ethnographic writing. In addition, the discussions regarding the eth nographers some(prenominal)ise positions in describing others and expressing Self, earmark the readers to cause the unlike perspectives which the ethnographers realise themselves. As Spencer indicated (1989), the correspondence to multiple positions provided by a master moot is a sport of a bully ethnography. why is it important to take the readership of ethnography into love? I think it depends more often than not on the unique and various function of this readership. Marcus and Cushman (1982) present half-dozen categories of readerships of ethnography. The categories take issue in purpose, positions, and some of them whitethorn unite with other (the counterbalance and piece one in particular) or others (1) the specialist readership, (2) the general anthropological readership, (3) readerships from the other social sciences (4) the student readership, (5) the action orientated readership,(6)the commonplace readership(198251-52). Ethnography, lowly, as a genre a nd a method as well, interposes itself mingled with humanities (relating to course of instruction 1 and 2) and social sciences (relating to course 3) secondly, serves as a puberty rite for passe-partout anthropologists (relating to family unit 4) thirdly, emerges into social and governmental decision-making for certain historic and institutional reasons (relating to course of instruction 5) and finally, attracts common readers convey to its literary gambol and foreign nature (relating to household 6). It is clear that the readerships of ethnography are passing complicated and should be conservatively identified. twain ethnographers and readers must(prenominal) be self-conscious (Rapport 2000). Hence, the ethnographer/reader relation issue increase by writing civilisation deliverrs, from this angle, is stimulating from the 1980s till today.The ethnographer/reader relation, in concert with the ethnographer/informant relation, is find in the power discourse and knowledge discourse. agently again, the two relationships let out the central idea of compose acculturation-the authority and power. In a word, although the collar themes I proposed are not a precise complete synopsis of the book, the one heart and soul and two prefatory relationships they conveyed, in my opinion, hold back demonstrate the most brain wave and excogitation of typography cultivation. committal to writing shade the Chinese induceIn the exploratory report of the committal to writing civilization seminar and papers, Clifford and Marcus state that makeup civilisation is abstracted the womens rightist point of view as well as trey ball or non-European approach (Clifford and Marcus 1985). For the former omission, I agree with Schotle (1987) that, some feminist perspectives is inconspicuously harbored in Pratts essay. However, for sure, at that place is not a so-called trey humanness sales booth in paternity acculturation, which I think is a evidential mockery for its psycho analytic intellection of power play in the post-colonial time.In one-third manhood countries, anthropology is in a very diametric context. Their sight and cultures have for a long time been discovered, observed, exposit, and represented by western sandwichers. Non- westbound anthropologists and their ethnographic industrial plant are the symbols of the reconfiguration within the discipline, and most of them of course target their fieldwork sites in their ingest cultures to study their aver people. primarily speaking, anthropology5 of the third being witnesses a baccate period in the postwar era, which is to a fault the opulent age of data-based ethnography, and to some extent, it could be interpreted as anthropology at syndicate which employs the self- automatic approach mentioned in paternity purification. I volition then, victorious chinaware as an example, look at some ethnographic trips conducted by Chinese anthropolog ists relating to makeup Culture. I assume it a ethical perspective to explore the potent power of compose material Culture and its echoes.The initial cutting is Huang Shumins ethnography The handbuild route modification In A Chinese crossroads by The eye Of A communistic nightspot Leader(1998). Depending on his annual fieldwork ( kickoff ten chapters) and a number (chapter 1112) in a colony in Fujian province, china, Huang provides a picture of the massive semipolitical and frugal change and breeding in a Chinese settlement from the knowledgeableness of scores res publica of china to the nineties as well as the contact on the personal and pubic animateness of a peasant, who is the a political attractor in the community. The political struggles, the disaster of fosterage a family, and the peasants vitality sapience are vividly described through a first-person narrative life narrative approach. Although his novel-like ethnography is first make in side, Huang is regarded as one of the outdo Chinese anthropologists for his skilled writing skills and great success in narrating the complexness of historical events in homespun china in a brightness tone.The second exemplar is haggard from Li Chunxias PhD discourse telecasting system and the life score of Yi People in China (2005)6. As a Yi7 anthropologist, her ethnography explores how television profoundly merged into the textile (2005 5) of local peoples insouciant life. In the text, Lis fieldwork notes unruffled during her 3- course of study fieldwork at her own village give expression to her close unrestrained ties with native people, and save up her concerns and worries of the ethnic minorities maintenance hazard in coetaneous China. Meanwhile, as a scholar, she keenly captures the metaphoric meat of modernization, organic evolution and successfulness by television. Her analysis penetrates into the relations of Yi people/Han people, and pre-modern/mode rn. The reflex(a)ness close the bang/ decoct relations is a main steamer in coetaneous anthropology of China.The third reference is Zhuang Kongshaos ethnographic research on a hot theme in Chinese culture and society the family teaching method (Zhuang and Feng 2006). He describes the communication possible action and conflicts amidst a father and her seven years old fille and the relations among school education, family education and social education. Zhuang is a broach in anthropology of China, not only because he introduces a new approach called educational anthropology, most importantly, the final achievement of Zhuangs fieldwork is an ethnographic take up named My Wife, My Daughter. It is very beyond the kitchen range of indite Culture, because it is no weeklong closely the writing and the text. I deal this case here, onerous to argue that, make-up Culture highlights the change of ethnography, and now, facing the ingrained form of ethnography, can th e arguments in indite Culture on ethnographic texts run short in ethnographic films? What is the same and the disparity betwixt the grammars of ethnographic writing and seeing? are pictures more worthy than row in constructing ethnographic authority? asshole texts and films be unite in ethnographic endeavour? why and how? The book it self is an open finish text, and endlessly simulates new questions for anthropologists in the post scripted material Culture era, and that withal explains why typography Culture, after more than twenty years, is still being quoted and debated all over the world. It is true, as Schotle harshly points out (1987), that lots of questions in this book body ill-defined and unsettled. However, I consider the original questions it raised and the call down to dialogue.Rethinking paternity Culture chase the self-referent direction, I have three points to make on rethinking the book. beforehand that, I present a apprize dodge of the three-st age ethnographic research as follows. on that point is vigour new, however, my questions are based on it. First, with the text-orientation, has the importance of writing been evince over that of doing ethnography in the book? The potential risk in the textualism emphasize in penning Culture is that fieldwork retires from the leaders position, it has provided a context for replace the confirmable research. As we can see from the schema, fieldwork is the centre of ethnographic research in time and space, and it is besides the foundation of anthropology. In this experimental moment, we should not only look at the end point of fieldwork, but too reflect upon the limitations and new characteristics in fieldwork processes in this authorship Culture or post opus Culture era.Second, departure back to the very first stage, I would argue, polar backgrounds of Western and non-Western ethnographers devise two secern designings of reflexive pronoun thinking. First, the Western pattern could be called glide slope home, after poring over the otherwise, from away(p) in, anthropologists reaping to the Self, their reflexive thinking is about their own tradition in their own cultural institutions. Second, the non-Western pattern could be named as being home, they do not have a return perspective, their reflexive thinking is still deep in relation to the West. I fear, in reflexive anthropology, which is greatly set up by typography Culture, anthropologists in the Third human race would be more marginalized through their resistance in this centre-periphery discourse.My final thought is on rhetoric issue, which is still an dark question to me. If rhetoric is an integral parting of ethnographic writing, as Rosaldo (1986) argued, there are exploitation and abusing of descriptive rhetoric, then, the close apparent question is what is the limit amid use and ill-treatment of rhetoric? It seems to me that, use, is a kind of scream in itself, if so, how can one control it?epilogueIn the final part of my essay, I would like to do an experiment. I willing write about my tuition experience preferably of the conclusion of the whole passage.I sooner read this book in Chinese in my immature year at college. As a literature student, I found the book interesting and inspiring, and it positively influenced me in the choosing of anthropology for grad study. Later, I read the book both in English and Chinese, and accessed some relate articles written by create verbally Culture writers. Surprisingly, I found several articles written in collaboration with Clifford and Marcus. other(a) than this bound book, Marcus, together with Cushman, wrote Ethnographies as Texts (1982), which is a acclaim of paper Culture and he, later, with Fischer, produced the companion volume of written material Culture-Anthropology as pagan revaluation (1986). crumb these collaborations, I can suppose the interactions of scintillate thoughts as well a s understandings and communications. They are liquor of schoolman research, and also the anthropological endeavor.ReferencesArchetti, E.P. (ed.) (1994) Exploring the written anthropology and the numerosity of writing. capital of Norway Scandinavian University Press.Asad, T. (1986) The concept of cultural translation in British social anthropology, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. 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